The Dyeing Process

The science of dyeing is highly complex, and the mechanisms of dyeing are not completely understood. This discussion about dyeing is necessarily superficial and does not provide an in-depth exploration of the subject. The medium most often used to dissolve or disperse dyes for application to textiles is water. The dye solution, called the dye liquor, is agitated or circulated to increase the migration of the dye to the fiber surface. The attraction or affinity of the dye for a particular fiber is influenced by several factors. Different dye types are attracted chemically or physically to specific fibers.

Fibers often undergo swelling in aqueous dyeing processes, increasing dye absorption. For hydrophobic fibers that do not swell in water, organic solvents can be used as swelling agents or “carriers” for the dye. Mordants can be added to increase the acceptance of dyes. Dyebath additives such as these are classed as dye auxiliaries. Surface features such as the scales on wool or waxes or finishes on fibers can inhibit attraction of the dye to the fiber. Careful preparation of fabrics for dyeing minimizes this effect by removing waxes and sizes. Further, application of aesthetic and functional finishes usually follows the dyeing process, so that the dyeing finishes do not compete for dye sites on the fiber.

Once dyes are attracted to the fiber, they should diffuse through it rather than remaining adsorbed on the surface. Dyes are absorbed into the fiber predominantly in the amorphous areas, and making these areas larger or more accessible enhances the dyeing process. Mercerization of cotton, which moves the polymer chains farther apart, allows more dye in. Higher temperatures, around the glass transition phase of thermoplastic fibers, cause some of the crystalline areas to move and separate more, increasing dye accessibility. Nylon fibers have a low glass transition temperature and can often pick up dyes from other fibers.

Exhaustion is the amount of transfer of dye from the dye bath to the fiber, either by adsorption or absorption of dyes. It is possible for all the dye to be removed from the dyeing bath and for the dye bath to be clear at the end of the dyeing process. Some dye classes exhaust better than others. It is not always prudent or even necessary, to dye to complete exhaustion of the bath.

A concern in dyeing is how evenly distributed the dye is in the fiber, a characteristic known as levelness. Low leveling will result in a streaked appearance of the fabric.

Dyes may be only adsorbed on the fiber surface, or dyes that have been absorbed by fibers may migrate back to the surface when the textile is dried, resulting in uneven dyeing. Leveling agents and retarders are dye-bath auxiliaries than can promote even dye absorption.

Once the dye has entered the amorphous regions of fiber, it must be retained within the fiber not only during the dyeing but also when fabrics are laundered or dry cleaned during use. Several factors make for dye retention. The nature of the dyeing chemical bonds and physical attraction between fiber and dye is a crucial element. Dyes may be physically bound to fibers by forces such as hydrogen bonding or ionic forces. Ionic forces are the attraction between positively and negatively charged ions, one on the dye, and the other on the fiber. The chemical structure of dye and fiber may allow the formation of covalent chemical bonds between fiber and dye. Dyes that are absorbed into swollen fibers can be physically trapped when the fibers are cooled and dried. Dyes that are soluble in water, which may also swell some fibers, can be removed when the textile is wetted during dyeing.